Breastfeeding is associated with enhanced intestinal gluconeogenesis in infants.

BACKGROUND: Breastfeeding (BF) confers metabolic benefits to infants, including reducing risks of metabolic syndrome such as obesity and diabetes later in life. However, the underlying mechanism is not yet fully understood. Hence, we aim to investigate the impacts of BF on the metabolic organs of infants. METHODS: Previous literatures directly studying the influences of BF on offspring's metabolic organs in both animal models and humans were comprehensively reviewed. A microarray dataset of intestinal gene expression comparing infants fed on breastmilk versus formula milk was analyzed. RESULTS: Reanalysis of microarray data showed that BF is associated with enhanced intestinal gluconeogenesis in infants. This resembles observations in other mammalian species showing that BF was also linked to increased gluconeogenesis. CONCLUSIONS: BF is associated with enhanced intestinal gluconeogenesis in infants, which may underpin its metabolic advantages through finetuning metabolic homeostasis. This observation seems to be conserved across species, hinting its biological significance.

High-Dimensional Methods of Single-Cell Microglial Profiling to Enhance Understanding of Neuropathological Disease.

Microglia are the innate myeloid cells of the central nervous system (CNS) parenchyma, functionally implicated in almost every defined neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative disorder. Current understanding of disease pathogenesis for many neuropathologies is limited and/or lacks reliable diagnostic markers, vaccines, and treatments. With the increasing aging of society and rise in neurogenerative diseases, improving our understanding of their pathogenesis is essential. Analysis of microglia from murine disease models provides an investigative tool to unravel disease processes. In many neuropathologies, bone-marrow-derived monocytes are recruited to the CNS, adopting a phenotype similar to that of microglia. This significantly confounds the accurate identification of cell-type-specific functions and downstream therapeutic targeting. The increased capacity to analyze more phenotypic markers using spectral-cytometry-based technologies allows improved separation of microglia from monocyte-derived cells. Full-spectrum profiling enables enhanced marker resolution, time-efficient analysis of >40 fluorescence parameters, and extraction of cellular autofluorescence parameters. Coupling this system with additional cytometric technologies, including cell sorting and high-parameter imaging, can improve the understanding of microglial phenotypes in disease. To this end, we provide detailed, step-by-step protocols for the analysis of murine brain tissue by high-parameter ex vivo cytometric analysis using the Aurora spectral cytometer (Cytek), including best practices for unmixing and autofluorescence extraction, cell sorting for single-cell RNA analysis, and imaging mass cytometry. Together, this provides a toolkit for researchers to comprehensively investigate microglial disease processes at protein, RNA, and spatial levels for the identification of therapeutic targets in neuropathology. © 2024 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Processing the mouse brain into a single-cell suspension for microglia isolation Basic Protocol 2: Staining single-cell mouse brain suspensions for microglial phenotyping by spectral cytometry Basic Protocol 3: Flow cytometric sorting of mouse microglia for ex vivo analysis Basic Protocol 4: Processing the mouse brain for imaging mass cytometry for spatial microglia analysis.

NK cell profiling in West Nile virus encephalitis reveals potential metabolic basis for functional inhibition.

Natural killer (NK) cells are cytotoxic lymphocytes important for viral defense. West Nile virus (WNV) infection of the central nervous system (CNS) causes marked recruitment of bone marrow (BM)-derived monocytes, T cells and NK cells, resulting in severe neuroinflammation and brain damage. Despite substantial numbers of NK cells in the CNS, their function and phenotype remain largely unexplored. Here, we demonstrate that NK cells mature from the BM to the brain, upregulate inhibitory receptors and show reduced cytokine production and degranulation, likely due to the increased expression of the inhibitory NK cell molecule, MHC-I. Intriguingly, this correlated with a reduction in metabolism associated with cytotoxicity in brain-infiltrating NK cells. Importantly, the degranulation and killing capability were restored in NK cells isolated from WNV-infected tissue, suggesting that WNV-induced NK cell inhibition occurs in the CNS. Overall, this work identifies a potential link between MHC-I inhibition of NK cells and metabolic reduction of their cytotoxicity during infection.

Erratum: Proteomic pathways to metabolic disease and type 2 diabetes in the pancreatic islet.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.103099.].

Functional profiling of gut microbial and immune responses toward different types of dietary fiber: a step toward personalized dietary interventions.

Dietary fiber plays a crucial role in maintaining gut and overall health. The objective of this study was to investigate whether different types of dietary fiber elicited specific changes in gut microbiota composition and the production of short-chain fatty acids. To test this, a longitudinal crossover study design was employed, in which healthy adult women consumed three distinct dietary fiber supplements: Inulin (fructo-oligosaccharide), Vitafiber (isomalto-oligosaccharide), and Fibremax (mixture of different fiber) during a one-week intervention period, followed by a 2-week washout period. A total of 15 g of soluble fiber was consumed daily for each supplement. Samples were collected before and after each intervention to analyze the composition of the gut microbiota by 16S rRNA sequencing and fecal levels of short-chain fatty acids measured using nuclear magnetic resonance. Phenotypic changes in peripheral blood mononuclear cells were studied in subsets of participants with higher SCFA levels post-intervention using spectral flow cytometry. The results revealed substantial stability and resilience of the overall gut bacterial community toward fiber-induced changes. However, each supplement had specific effects on gut bacterial alpha and beta diversity, SCFA production, and immune changes. Inulin consistently exerted the most pronounced effect across individuals and certain taxa were identified as potential indicators of SCFA production in response to inulin supplementation. This distinguishing feature was not observed for the other fiber supplements. Further large-scale studies are required to confirm these findings. Overall, our study implies that personalized dietary fiber intervention could be tailored to promote the growth of beneficial bacteria to maximize SCFA production and associated health benefits.

Dysbiotic Gut Microbiota-Derived Metabolites and Their Role in Non-Communicable Diseases.

Dysbiosis, generally defined as the disruption to gut microbiota composition or function, is observed in most diseases, including allergies, cancer, metabolic diseases, neurological disorders and diseases associated with autoimmunity. Dysbiosis is commonly associated with reduced levels of beneficial gut microbiota-derived metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and indoles. Supplementation with these beneficial metabolites, or interventions to increase their microbial production, has been shown to ameliorate a variety of inflammatory diseases. Conversely, the production of gut 'dysbiotic' metabolites or by-products by the gut microbiota may contribute to disease development. This review summarizes the various 'dysbiotic' gut-derived products observed in cardiovascular diseases, cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, metabolic diseases including non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and autoimmune disorders such as multiple sclerosis. The increased production of dysbiotic gut microbial products, including trimethylamine, hydrogen sulphide, products of amino acid metabolism such as p-Cresyl sulphate and phenylacetic acid, and secondary bile acids such as deoxycholic acid, is commonly observed across multiple diseases. The simultaneous increased production of dysbiotic metabolites with the impaired production of beneficial metabolites, commonly associated with a modern lifestyle, may partially explain the high prevalence of inflammatory diseases in western countries.

A macrocyclic fluorescent probe for the detection of citrate.

We present a macrocyclic fluorescent probe for the detection of citrate. This receptor binds citrate through hydrogen-bonding interactions in aqueous solutions, and exhibits a turn-on in fluorescence in response to binding. The presence of common biologically relevant dicarboxylate species does not significantly impact the fluorescence response. We have demonstrated the utility of this probe with the staining of murine splenocytes, and identified different basal levels of citrate present in immune cell subsets via flow cytometry analysis.

GPR109A expressed on medullary thymic epithelial cells affects thymic Treg development.

Regulatory T cells (Treg) maintain immune homeostasis due to their anti-inflammatory functions. They can be generated either centrally in the thymus or in peripheral organs. Metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids produced by intestinal microbiota can induce peripheral Treg differentiation, by activating G-protein-coupled-receptors like GPR109A. In this study, we identified a novel role for GPR109A in thymic Treg development. We found that Gpr109a-/- mice had increased Treg under basal conditions in multiple organs compared with WT mice. GPR109A was not expressed on T cells but on medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs), as revealed by single-cell RNA sequencing in both mice and humans and confirmed by flow cytometry in mice. mTECs isolated from Gpr109a-/- mice had higher expression of autoimmune regulator (AIRE), the key regulator of Treg development, while the subset of mTECs that did not express Gpr109a in the WT displayed increased Aire expression and also enhanced signaling related to mTEC functionality. Increased thymic Treg in Gpr109a-/- mice was associated with protection from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, with ameliorated clinical signs and reduced inflammation. This work identifies a novel role for GPR109A and possibly the gut microbiota, on thymic Treg development via its regulation of mTECs.

Determining the metabolic effects of dietary fat, sugars and fat-sugar interaction using nutritional geometry in a dietary challenge study with male mice.

The metabolic effects of sugars and fat lie at the heart of the "carbohydrate vs fat" debate on the global obesity epidemic. Here, we use nutritional geometry to systematically investigate the interaction between dietary fat and the major monosaccharides, fructose and glucose, and their impact on body composition and metabolic health. Male mice (n = 245) are maintained on one of 18 isocaloric diets for 18-19 weeks and their metabolic status is assessed through in vivo procedures and by in vitro assays involving harvested tissue samples. We find that in the setting of low and medium dietary fat content, a 50:50 mixture of fructose and glucose (similar to high-fructose corn syrup) is more obesogenic and metabolically adverse than when either monosaccharide is consumed alone. With increasing dietary fat content, the effects of dietary sugar composition on metabolic status become less pronounced. Moreover, higher fat intake is more harmful for glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity irrespective of the sugar mix consumed. The type of fat consumed (soy oil vs lard) does not modify these outcomes. Our work shows that both dietary fat and sugars can lead to adverse metabolic outcomes, depending on the dietary context. This study shows how the principles of the two seemingly conflicting models of obesity (the "energy balance model" and the "carbohydrate insulin model") can be valid, and it will help in progressing towards a unified model of obesity. The main limitations of this study include the use of male mice of a single strain, and not testing the metabolic effects of fructose intake via sugary drinks, which are strongly linked to human obesity.

Diet, commensal microbiota-derived extracellular vesicles, and host immunity.

The gut microbiota has co-evolved with its host, and commensal bacteria can influence both the host's immune development and function. Recently, a role has emerged for bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) as potent immune modulators. BEVs are nanosized membrane vesicles produced by all bacteria, possessing the membrane characteristics of the originating bacterium and carrying an internal cargo that may include nucleic acid, proteins, lipids, and metabolites. Thus, BEVs possess multiple avenues for regulating immune processes, and have been implicated in allergic, autoimmune, and metabolic diseases. BEVs are biodistributed locally in the gut, and also systemically, and thus have the potential to affect both the local and systemic immune responses. The production of gut microbiota-derived BEVs is regulated by host factors such as diet and antibiotic usage. Specifically, all aspects of nutrition, including macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, and fat), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), and food additives (the antimicrobial sodium benzoate), can regulate BEV production. This review summarizes current knowledge of the powerful links between nutrition, antibiotics, gut microbiota-derived BEV, and their effects on immunity and disease development. It highlights the potential of targeting or utilizing gut microbiota-derived BEV as a therapeutic intervention.

Temporal tracking of microglial and monocyte single-cell transcriptomics in lethal flavivirus infection.

As the resident parenchymal myeloid population in the central nervous system (CNS), microglia are strategically positioned to respond to neurotropic virus invasion and have been implicated in promoting both disease resolution and progression in the acute and post-infectious phase of virus encephalitis. In a mouse model of West Nile virus encephalitis (WNE), infection of the CNS results in recruitment of large numbers of peripheral immune cells into the brain, the majority being nitric oxide (NO)-producing Ly6Chi inflammatory monocyte-derived cells (MCs). In this model, these cells enhance immunopathology and mortality. However, the contribution of microglia to this response is currently undefined. Here we used a combination of experimental tools, including single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), microglia and MC depletion reagents, high-dimensional spectral cytometry and computational algorithms to dissect the differential contribution of microglia and MCs to the anti-viral immune response in severe neuroinflammation seen in WNE. Intriguingly, analysis of scRNA-seq data revealed 6 unique microglia and 3 unique MC clusters that were predominantly timepoint-specific, demonstrating substantial transcriptional adaptation with disease progression over the course of WNE. While microglia and MC adopted unique gene expression profiles, gene ontology enrichment analysis, coupled with microglia and MC depletion studies, demonstrated a role for both of these cells in the trafficking of peripheral immune cells into the CNS, T cell responses and viral clearance. Over the course of infection, microglia transitioned from a homeostatic to an anti-viral and then into an immune cell-recruiting phenotype. Conversely, MC adopted antigen-presenting, immune cell-recruiting and NO-producing phenotypes, which all had anti-viral function. Overall, this study defines for the first time the single-cell transcriptomic responses of microglia and MCs over the course of WNE, demonstrating both protective and pathological roles of these cells that could potentially be targeted for differential therapeutic intervention to dampen immune-mediated pathology, while maintaining viral clearance functions.

Dietary fiber and SCFAs in the regulation of mucosal immunity.

Gut bacterial metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) have important effects on immune cells and the gut. SCFAs derive from the fermentation of dietary fiber by gut commensal bacteria. Insufficient fiber intake thus compromises SCFA production and, as a consequence, the host's physiology (particularly immune functions). We propose that many Western diseases, including those associated with impaired mucosal responses such as food allergy and asthma, may be affected by insufficient fiber intake and reduced SCFA levels in the gut and blood. Insufficient fiber intake is 1 alternative, or contributor, on top of the "hygiene hypothesis" to the rise of Western lifestyle diseases, and the 2 ideas need to be reconciled. The mechanisms by which SCFAs influence immunity and gut homeostasis are varied; they include stimulation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), such as GPR43 or GPR41; inhibition of histone deacetylases (and hence, gene transcription changes); and induction of intracellular metabolic changes. SCFAs modulate at many different levels to alter mucosal homeostasis, including changes to gut epithelial integrity, increases in regulatory T-cell numbers and function, and decreased expression of numerous inflammatory cytokines. There is scope for preventing and/or treating diseases by using diets that alter SCFA levels.

Diet-driven microbial ecology underpins associations between cancer immunotherapy outcomes and the gut microbiome.

The gut microbiota shapes the response to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in cancer, however dietary and geographic influences have not been well-studied in prospective trials. To address this, we prospectively profiled baseline gut (fecal) microbiota signatures and dietary patterns of 103 trial patients from Australia and the Netherlands treated with neoadjuvant ICIs for high risk resectable metastatic melanoma and performed an integrated analysis with data from 115 patients with melanoma treated with ICIs in the United States. We observed geographically distinct microbial signatures of response and immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Overall, response rates were higher in Ruminococcaceae-dominated microbiomes than in Bacteroidaceae-dominated microbiomes. Poor response was associated with lower fiber and omega 3 fatty acid consumption and elevated levels of C-reactive protein in the peripheral circulation at baseline. Together, these data provide insight into the relevance of native gut microbiota signatures, dietary intake and systemic inflammation in shaping the response to and toxicity from ICIs, prompting the need for further studies in this area.

Dysbiosis in imiquimod-induced psoriasis alters gut immunity and exacerbates colitis development.

Psoriasis has long been associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD); however, a causal link is yet to be established. Here, we demonstrate that imiquimod-induced psoriasis (IMQ-pso) in mice disrupts gut homeostasis, characterized by increased proportions of colonic CX3CR1hi macrophages, altered cytokine production, and bacterial dysbiosis. Gut microbiota from these mice produce higher levels of succinate, which induce de novo proliferation of CX3CR1hi macrophages ex vivo, while disrupted gut homeostasis primes IMQ-pso mice for more severe colitis with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) challenge. These results demonstrate that changes in the gut environment in psoriasis lead to greater susceptibility to IBD in mice, suggesting a two-hit requirement, that is, psoriasis-induced altered gut homeostasis and a secondary environmental challenge. This may explain the increased prevalence of IBD in patients with psoriasis.

Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with increased gut permeability and bacterial translocation which are reversed by inflammation control.

OBJECTIVE: to assess how rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and Disease Modifying Anti Rheumatic Drugs (DMARDs) affect gut permeability. METHODS: to explore colonic mucosa integrity, tight junction proteins ZO-1, occludin and claudin 2 were quantified by immunohistochemistry on colonic biopsies in 20 RA patients and 20 age- and sex-matched controls. Staining intensity was assessed by two blinded independent readers. To explore intestinal permeability, serum concentrations of LPS-binding protein (LBP), sCD14 and zonulin-related proteins (ZRP) were evaluated by ELISA in another cohort of 59 RA: 21 patients naive of DMARDs (17 before and after introduction of a conventional synthetic (cs) DMARDs), 38 patients with severe RA (before and after introduction of a biological (b) DMARDs), and 33 healthy controls. RESULTS: Z0-1 protein was less expressed in colon of RA patients than controls (mean score ± SEM of 1.6 ± 0.56 vs 2.0 ± 0.43; p= 0.01), while no significant difference was detected for occludin and claudin-2. RA patients had higher serum LBP and sCD14 concentrations than controls. LBP and sCD14 levels were significantly correlated with DAS28 (r = 0.61, p= 0.005 and r = 0.57, p= 0.01, respectively) while ZRP did not. bDMARD responders had significantly reduced LBP and sCD14 concentrations unlike bDMARDs non-responders and patients treated with csDMARDs. CONCLUSION: RA patients have altered colonic tight junction proteins and increased serum biomarkers of intestinal permeability. There was a correlation between serological markers of intestinal permeability and disease activity as well as bDMARD response. These results suggest a link between impaired gut integrity and systemic inflammation in RA.

Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with increased gut permeability and bacterial translocation which are reversed by inflammation control.

OBJECTIVE: to assess how rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and Disease Modifying Anti Rheumatic Drugs (DMARDs) affect gut permeability. METHODS: to explore colonic mucosa integrity, tight junction proteins ZO-1, occludin and claudin 2 were quantified by immunohistochemistry on colonic biopsies in 20 RA patients and 20 age- and sex-matched controls. Staining intensity was assessed by two blinded independent readers. To explore intestinal permeability, serum concentrations of LPS-binding protein (LBP), sCD14 and zonulin-related proteins (ZRP) were evaluated by ELISA in another cohort of 59 RA: 21 patients naive of DMARDs (17 before and after introduction of a conventional synthetic (cs) DMARDs), 38 patients with severe RA (before and after introduction of a biological (b) DMARDs), and 33 healthy controls. RESULTS: Z0-1 protein was less expressed in colon of RA patients than controls (mean score ± SEM of 1.6 ± 0.56 vs 2.0 ± 0.43; p= 0.01), while no significant difference was detected for occludin and claudin-2. RA patients had higher serum LBP and sCD14 concentrations than controls. LBP and sCD14 levels were significantly correlated with DAS28 (r = 0.61, p= 0.005 and r = 0.57, p= 0.01, respectively) while ZRP did not. bDMARD responders had significantly reduced LBP and sCD14 concentrations unlike bDMARDs non-responders and patients treated with csDMARDs. CONCLUSION: RA patients have altered colonic tight junction proteins and increased serum biomarkers of intestinal permeability. There was a correlation between serological markers of intestinal permeability and disease activity as well as bDMARD response. These results suggest a link between impaired gut integrity and systemic inflammation in RA.

Dietary protein increases T-cell-independent sIgA production through changes in gut microbiota-derived extracellular vesicles.

Secretory IgA is a key mucosal component ensuring host-microbiota mutualism. Here we use nutritional geometry modelling in mice fed 10 different macronutrient-defined, isocaloric diets, and identify dietary protein as the major driver of secretory IgA production. Protein-driven secretory IgA induction is not mediated by T-cell-dependent pathways or changes in gut microbiota composition. Instead, the microbiota of high protein fed mice produces significantly higher quantities of extracellular vesicles, compared to those of mice fed high-carbohydrate or high-fat diets. These extracellular vesicles activate Toll-like receptor 4 to increase the epithelial expression of IgA-inducing cytokine, APRIL, B cell chemokine, CCL28, and the IgA transporter, PIGR. We show that succinate, produced in high concentrations by microbiota of high protein fed animals, increases generation of reactive oxygen species by bacteria, which in turn promotes extracellular vesicles production. Here we establish a link between dietary macronutrient composition, gut microbial extracellular vesicles release and host secretory IgA response.

Your Regulatory T Cells Are What You Eat: How Diet and Gut Microbiota Affect Regulatory T Cell Development.

Modern industrial practices have transformed the human diet over the last century, increasing the consumption of processed foods. Dietary imbalance of macro- and micro-nutrients and excessive caloric intake represent significant risk factors for various inflammatory disorders. Increased ingestion of food additives, residual contaminants from agricultural practices, food processing, and packaging can also contribute deleteriously to disease development. One common hallmark of inflammatory disorders, such as autoimmunity and allergies, is the defect in anti-inflammatory regulatory T cell (Treg) development and/or function. Treg represent a highly heterogeneous population of immunosuppressive immune cells contributing to peripheral tolerance. Tregs either develop in the thymus from autoreactive thymocytes, or in the periphery, from naïve CD4+ T cells, in response to environmental antigens and cues. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that various dietary factors can directly regulate Treg development. These dietary factors can also indirectly modulate Treg differentiation by altering the gut microbiota composition and thus the production of bacterial metabolites. This review provides an overview of Treg ontogeny, both thymic and peripherally differentiated, and highlights how diet and gut microbiota can regulate Treg development and function.